outline of socrates :: essays research papers fc

Socrates: 1. Sophists ~> professional teachers... Socrates was the greatest of them all (469-399 B.C.E.) 2. Followed the Sophists' lead in turning away from the study of the cosmos and concentrating on the case of the human. Unlike the way the Sophists discoursed about the human being, he wanted to base all argumentation on objectively valid definitions. 3. Socrates' discourse moved in two directions A. Outward - to objective definitions B. Inward - to discover the inner person, the soul, the source of all truth to Socrates. 4. He was hardly ever able to answer the questions he asked. 5. Spent much time in the streets and markets of Athens. A. Querying every man he met about whether that man knew anything. B. Said, "If there was an afterlife, he would pose the same question to the shades in Hades." 6. Socrates professed, ironically, that he knew nothing, because he at least knew that he knew nothing, whereas the others falsely believed themselves to know something. 7. He, himself, wrote no books, but his conversations were remembered by his disciple Plato, and later published by him as dialogues... Very often these questions emphasized a specific philosophical question. The typical Socratic dialogue has 3 divisions: A. A question is posed. Socrates becomes excited and enthusiastic to find someone who claims to know something. B. Finds "minor flaws" in his companion's definition and slowly begins to unravel it, forcing his partner to admit ignorance (in one dialogue, his target ended up in tears). C. An agreement is reached by the admittedly ignorant companion to pursue truth seriously. 8. In his quest for truth, Socrates managed to offend many of the powerful and pompous figures of Athens, who later conspired against him, getting him indicted for teaching false doctrines, for impiety, and for corrupting the youth. 9. Socrates was brought to trial, with the hopes to humiliate him by forcing him to beg for mercy. A. On the contrary, Socrates maligned his prosecutors and angered the unruly jury of 500 by lecturing to them about their ignorance. When he was asked to suggest his own punishment, he recommended that the Athenians give him free board and lodging in the town hall... The jury condemned him to death by a vote of 280 to 220

Actus Reus – Paper

ACTUS REUS: OMISSION & CAUSATION The general basis for imposing liability in  criminal law  is that the defendant must be proved to have committed a guilty act whilst having had a guilty state of mind. The physical elements are collectively called the actus reus and the accompanied mental state is called the mens rea. It is the fundamental duty of the prosecution to prove both of these elements of the offence to the satisfaction of the judge or jury beyond reasonable doubt. In the absence of such proof the defendant will be acquitted.ACTUS REUS An actus reus consists of more than just an act. It also consists of whatever circumstances and consequences are recognised for liability for the offence in question – in other words all the elements of an offence other than the mental element. The term actus reus has been given a much wider meaning by Glanville Williams in his criminal law. He says : When he use the technical tern actus reus we include all the external circumstance s and consequences specified in the rule of law as constituting the forbidden situation.Reus must be taken as indicating the situation specified in the actus reus as on that, given any necessary mental element, is forbidden by law. In other words, acus reus means the whole definition of the crime with the exception of the mental element – and it even includes a mental element in so far as that is contained in the definition of an act. Actus reus includes negative as well as positive elements. For example, as stared earlier, the actus reus of murder is the causing of death of a person.It also includes circumstances, such as the person whose death has been caused was not as a consequence of a sentence or death given to him or that the death was caused within the territorial jurisdiction of the state. OMISSIONS IN CRIMES Omissions are controversial for two main reasons_ first, whether and to what extent it is justifiable omissions rather than acts; and secondly, whether liabilit y for omissions rather than act requirement in criminal law. Pursuing the second point here, much has been made above of the importance f requiring proof that the defendant voluntarily did something to produce prohibited conduct or consequence. In so far as this can be termed an ‘act requirement’, are omissions a true exception to it? If they are, is this another argument against criminalizing them? One much-discussed preliminary question is the distinction between acts and omissions. Sometimes it is argued that certain verbs imply action and therefore exclude liability for omissions, and that the criminal law should respect. The distinctions flowing from this. English courts have often used this linguistic or interpretive approach.It has led to a variety of decisions in different statutes, without much discussion of the general principles underlying omissions liability. The law commissions considerably draft criminal code may be said to signal the continuation of this approach, by redefining the homicide offences in terms of ‘causing death’ rather than ‘killing’, and refining the damage offences in terms of ‘causing damage’, rather than ‘damaging’, so as ‘to leave fully open the courts the possibility of so constructing the relevant (statutory) provisions as to impose liability for omissions’.The draft cod would therefore remove any linguistic awkwardness in saying, for example, that a parent killed a child by failing to feed it; but it does so in this specific instance, and without proclaiming a general principle, that the act requirement may be fulfilled by an omission of a duty can be established. Attachment to the vagaries of the language is no proper basis for delineating the boundaries of criminal liability.In some situations the courts, following the linguistic approach, have nevertheless found themselves able to impose omissions liability. In Speck (1977)3 the defendant was charged with committing an act of gross indecency with or towards a child. The evidence was that an 8 yr old girl placed her hand on his trousers over his penis. he allowed that hand to remain there for some minutes, causing him to have an erection.The court of appeal held that the defendants failure to remove the hand amounted to an invitation to the child with the act, or it created a duty in an adult to put an end to the innocent touching of this kind, with omissions liability for not fulfilling the duty. The analysis is similar to that in miller (1983) where D fell asleep whilst smoking, woke up to find the mattress smouldering, but simply left the room and went to sleep elsewhere. He was convicted of causing criminal damage by fire, on the basis that a person who initiates a sequence of events nnocently and then fails to do anything to stop the sequence should be regarded as having caused the whole sequence. On this view the conduct constitutes a single, continuing act; Miller caused the damage because he took no steps to extinguish the fire he had innocently started. It must be doubted whether these efforts to find an act which then coincides in point in point of time with defendants knowledge and intentions are convincing. surely the courts are imposing liability for an omission on these cases, by recognizing that a duty arises.Speck is a little different from miller since the original act of the speck was of the girl, and the duty must therefore amount the recognition of an obligation on an adult to put an end to the indecent yet innocent touching by a child. In so far as these decisions appear to extend the statutory wording, are they objectionable on grounds of retroactivity and lack of fair warning, or defensible as applications of existing common law doctrine to new situations?In other situations it seems possible to offer plausible reasons for regarding the same event as either an act or an omission, and in some cases the courts have sought to exp loit this ambiguity when dealing with problematic medical issues. Yet it is one thing to say that a healthcare professional who decides not to replace an empty bag for a drip-feed has made an omission, whereas switching a ventilator off is an act; is another thing to maintain that the act-omission distinction should be crucial to any determination of the criminal liability in the two situations.In Airedale NHS trust v bland (1993)the house of lords held that it would be lawful for a doctor to withdraw treatment from a patient in a persistent vegetative state, even though death would inevitable be hastened by that conduct. The house held that the withdrawal of treatment would constitute and omission, and thus regarded the duties of the doctor as the central issue. The decision was that the doctor a doctor has no duty to continue life supplying treatment when it is no longer in the best interest of the patient, having regard to responsible medical opinion.However the court of appeal d eclined to adopt this subterfuge in Re A(conjoined twins: Surgical separation), holding that the surgical separation of the twins would undoubtedly an act, and subsequently deciding that carrying out an operation which would result in the death of one twin in order to save the life of other could be justifies on the grounds of necessity. This demonstration of the fragility of the act-omission distinction of the vagaries fthe English language indicates that it may be simplistic to oppose omissions liability in the principle.There are some clear cases of omission in which it is desirable to have criminal liability, such as the parent who neglects to feed her or his child or neglects to protect it from abuse. Omissions can be involuntary or not, in the same way as acts; and provided, that the harm resulted because D failed to intervene, it can be argued that omissions are also causes. Omissions liability ay therefore satisfy the principles that no one should be held liable for bodily m ovements that he or she did not or could not direct.It may also satisfy the principle that no person should be held liable for the conduct or consequences that he or she did not cause. But one point of the act requirement is to exclude liability for mere thoughts that do not result in some bodily movement, and omissions fall foul to that. They do so for a good reason – that certain positive duties to act are so important that they can rightly be made the subject of criminal liability. Of course, such a duty should also be defined with sufficient certainty and made known to those affected by it.So long as these formal requirements are fulfilled there can be no fairness objection to holding a person liable, provided that he or she is capable of taking some steps to carry out the duty. CAUSATION IN CRIMES An event is very often the result of a number of factors. A factor is said to have caused a particular event if, without that factor or, the event would not have happened. Thus , a man is said to have caused the actus reus of a crime, if, that actus would not have occurred without his participation in what was done. Some casual relationships has to be established between his conduct and the prohibited result.A man is usually held criminally liable only for the consequences of his conduct as he foresaw, (or is crimes of negligence, he ought to have foreseen). The act must be the causa causans, ie, the immediate or proximate cause of the effect. When the facts are direct and simple, then establishing the causal nexus between the act and the effect may not be difficult, as for instance in a case of person shooting another person and thereby killing him. The causation can also be without any direct physical act. if the victim asks his way on a dark night nd the accused with the intention of causing his death, directs him to a path that he knows will bring him to a cliff edge , and the victing suffers a fatal fall, this is clearly murder, though the accused has done nothing more than utter words. This can be true in cases of abetment, incitement and conspiracy. In the instances stated above, it is not difficult to establish the direct result between the cause and the effect. The difficulty arises only in cases of multiple causation, where it is difficult to establish the imputability. Example: A, intending to kill B but only wounds him very slightly.A clearly has the requisite mens rea for murder, that is, he foresees and desires B’s death. Not let us assume that on his being ta ken to the hospital in an ambulance, a piece of masonry from a building falls on the ambulance and kills B; or, alternatively, that B has a rare blood disease which prevents his blood from coagulation so that the slight wound leads to his death, which it would not have done if he had not been suffering from this disease; or, alternatively, that B refuses to have the wound treated and dies of blood poisoning, which would not have occurred if B had had the wo unded treated.In all these cases, a problem of causation arises, i. e. , did A cause B’s death for the purposes of the criminal law so that he can be convicted of murder? If the result is too remote and accidental in its occurrence, then there is no criminal liability. CAUSATION AND NEGLIGENCE The difficulty of causation arises very often n cases of negligence. It has t be established that first, the conduct of the person was negligent and secondly, that but for the negligent act of accused, the accident would not have occurred. In other words, the actus reus should be causally connected to the act, which should be proved to be a negligent.In order to impose criminal liability under S 304A, IPC, it is essential to establish that death is the direct result of the rash or (and) negligent act of the accused. It must be causa causans – the immediate cause and not enough that it may be quasa sine qua non, ie, proximate cause. There can be no conviction when rashness or negl igence of third party intervenes. In Suleman rahiman mulani v state of Maharashtra the Supreme Court has approved his rule. In Suleman rahiman mulani the accused who was driving the jeep struck the deceased, as a result of which he sustained serious injuries. The ccused put the injured person in the jeep for medical treatment, but he died. Thereafter, the accused cremated the body. The accused was charged under s304A and 201 of the IPC. As per s 304A, there must be direct nexus between the death of a person and rash and negligent act of the accused that caused the death of the deceased. It was the case of the prosecution of the accused had possessed only a learner’s license and hence was guilty of causing the death of the deceased. The court held that there was no presumption in law that a person who possesses only a learner’s license or possesses no license at all, does not know driving.A person could for various reasons, including sheer indifference, might not have b een taken a regular license . there was evidence to show that the accused had driven the jeep to various places on the previous day of occurrence. So before the accused convicted under s304A, there must a proof that the accused drove in a rash and negligent manner and death was a direct consequence of such rash and negligent manner. In the absence of such evidence no offence under s 304A was made out. The accused was acquitted of the charges. MINIMAL CAUSATIONWhen death of a person is caused after medical treatment, it cannot be said that the treatment was not proper or inadequate, or had better treatment been given, the death would not have taken place. This is because, the intervention of the doctor is in the nature of minimum causation and hence its intervention would have played only a minor part, if any, in causing death. As far as the IPC is concerned, explanation 2 of s 299 specifically states that if an act causes death, even death could have been avoided by proper remedies and skilful treatment, the act shall be deemed to have caused death and the person will be criminally liable.If death results from an injury voluntarily caused, the person who causes the injury, therefore, is deemed to have caused the death, although the life of victim might have been saved if proper medical treatment, provided that it was administered in good faith by a competent physician or surgeon. In Moti singh v state of uttar Pradesh the deceased gayacharan had received two gunshot wounds in the abdomen which were dangerous to life. The injury was received on February 1960. There was no evidence when he was discharged from the hospital and whether he had fully recovered or not.He, however, died on march 1 1960. His body was cremated without post mortem being done. The supreme court held that the two gunshot injuries were dangerous to life were not sufficient for holding that gyancharans death, which took place about three weeks after the incident, was on account of the injuri es received by him. The court observed that in order to prove the charges on gyancharans murder, it was necessary to establish that he had died on account of injuries received on him.Since, the was no evidence to establish the cause of death, the accused could not be said to have caused the death of gyancharan. A crucial aspect highlighted by the court in the case was that the connection between the primary cause and the death should not be too remote. CONCLUSION Causation is a complex topic, with which we have been able to deal only brief here. Proof of causation is often said to be an essential precondition of criminal liability, but there is reason to doubt the generality of that requirement, notably in respect of accomplice liability and vicarious criminal liability.Rather than insisting on a universal requirement of causation, it may be preferable to argue that liability should be negatived, in general, by the voluntary intervening act of another. Several criticisms of the judi cial approach to three exceptional categories of case hace been advanced above. Often the explanations given by the courts are unconvincing. Whilst the traditional or standard causal theory emphasizes the significance of the last voluntary act, there is no reluctance to took wider or to massage the term ‘voluntary’ in certain situations, especially where D clearly stated that the sequence of events by doing a wrongful act.The challenge is to re-examine the intuitions that lead judges and others to their conclusions (the wrongful act theory, the approach to medical mistakes etc. ) with a view to constructing a law that ensures that the courts respect the various principles . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. P. S. A. Pillai – Criminal law 2. Glanville Williams book on criminal law 3. www. lawteacher. com ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Page 427, principles of criminal law, Glanville will iams [ 2 ]. Duff, criminal attempts, 317-20 Glanville Williams [ 3 ]. 65 CR App R 161. [ 4 ]. (1983) 2 AC 161 [ 5 ]. Criticisms by jc smith (1982) Crim LR 527 and 724, and D.Husak, philosophy of criminal law(1987), 176-8 [ 6 ]. See I. M Kennedy, Treat me right (1988) 169-74 [ 7 ]. (1993) AC 789 [ 8 ]. 4 ALL ER 961 [ 9 ]. Emery (1993) 14 Cr App R (s) 394, aand the new duty by the domestic violence, crime and victims act 2004. [ 10 ]. Glanville Williams, ‘criminal law- causation’) [ 11 ]. Rustom sherior Irani v state of Maharashtra(1969) ACC Cj 79 (SC) [ 12 ]. Md rangawalla v state of mahaarashtra AIR 1965 [ 13 ]. However a driver is expected to anticipate reasonably foreseeable negligent act to road users as contributory negligence has no application in criminal law. [ 14 ]. Re san pai (1936) 14 rang 643

Essay about Hegel Reason in History - 565 Words

Hegel: Reason in History The second chapter of the Introduction to the Philosophy of History bears the title Reason in History; however, careful study reveals that it could just as aptly been dubbed Reason is History or better, History is Reason. Although Reason exists in a finite form within the human being, the whole—infinite Reason—is necessarily greater than the sum of its parts—the sum of finite Reasons. Hegels Reason is the infinite material of all reality—the substance, form, and power. History is the increasing self-consciousness of the Spirit i.e. Reason; that is, a progressive increase of Reason within the world. This relationship between history and Reason is expressed by Hegels agreement with Leibniz that this†¦show more content†¦the absolute, rational end-goal of the world, and links it to Reason: Thought, quite freely determining itself (15-16). When combined with Hegels prescriptive dictum that it is mans duty to know God i.e. Reason, this bridge between Reason and theology helps Hegel to further define his historical approach as a theodicy—a justification of the ways of God. The necessity for justification arrives when one seeks to explain dissatisfying events of the present relative to the glorious whole of history. So, in this complex relationship lie two of Hegels fundamental contributions to thought. First, the claim that the Absolute can and should be known and, second, the assertion that the whole is the Truth. In summary, History is the progressive path of Reason within the world. Reason, therefore, is a guiding force which steers history towards its teleological end-goal of the actualization of absolute Reason in the objective form of the free State. Hegels description of Reason and History prompt serious questions and objections concerning not only the content of his beliefs but also of his justification for them. First, Hegel asks the reader to presuppose important features of his system including the nature of Reason as the infinite power of reality. Philosophy, he says, has already proven such assertions, but with no further description, the foundations of hisShow MoreRelatedHegel Essay Analysis990 Words   |  4 PagesIn this passage from Hegel he is saying that freedom is terribly misunderstood in its formal subjective sense, and has been far removed from its essential purpose and goals. People think they should be able to do whatever they want and that is what freedom is, and that anything limiting there desires, impulses , and passions is a limit of there freedom. 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Chlamydia Trachomatis Common And Reported Sexually...

Chlamydia tracomatis Antonia Kingham 12/03/2014 Natsci 197 Ms. Madden Public Health Paper Introduction: Chlamydia trachomatis is a sexually transmitted bacterium that falls into the genus Chlamydia. In general it is prevalent amongst the younger adults due to living a promiscuous life style. C. trachomatis can be responsible for both long and short term effects from contracting this bacterial disease therefore the longer you have it the more severe the effects can be. Chlamydia can be asymptomatic meaning it can go unnoticed for a prolonged period of time without any symptoms; the symptoms that do arise are ones that can’t be ignored for they are irritating, painful and harmful, if left untreated. Anyone participating in any kind of sexual activity should be tested annually. There are a variety of ways and resources for diagnosing C. trachomatis along with treatments for this infection which include antibiotics and prevention strategies. C. trachomatis is the most common and reported sexually transmitted disease (STD) in Wisconsin (1). C. trachomatis has specific microbial chara cteristics such as size and shape. C. trachomatis is an obligate intracellular parasite which is a type of parasite that can reproduce only inside their host cell. Chlamydia is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomati. This bacterium can only be spread by having one or any of the following: anal, vaginal, and oral sex with someone who has chlamydia, thisShow MoreRelatedChlamydia: The Silent Disease824 Words   |  3 Pages Identified 1907, Chlamydia was once thought to be a virus. It was classified as a bacterium in the 1960s (Breguet 9) by Stanislaus Von Prowazek, a Czech Scientist. This discovery of a new bacterium led many scientist to believe that this was not the only bacteria they were classifying wrong. Chlamydia trachomatis The word Chlamydia comes from the greek chlamys, A type of cloak that drapes over the shoulder. 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Although STDs can affect people of all ages, young people – especially college students - between the ages of 19 and 25 are the most affected (American Social Health Association). There are three types of STDs: bacterial, viral and parasitic. In this essay, we will study one disease from each category by analyzingRead MoreSexually Transmitted Diseases ( Std ) Essay1590 Words   |  7 PagesSexually transmitted diseases (STD) or sexually transmitted infections (STI) as they are also known account for 20 million cases annually and may be more of an economic burden than realized (Decker, 2016). These infections often go untreated or reported secondary to individuals being asymptomatic or lacking knowledge of the infections and the need for treatment. The current economic burden for treati ng these infections is estimated to be 16 million dollars a year with individuals between the ages

Rupert Brooke And Ww1 Poetry Comparison - 790 Words

World War One poets Rupert Brooke and Wilfred Owen both use poetry to examine their differing perspectives surrounding the idea of heroism in war. Brooke’s The Soldier depicts an idealistic, patriotic view towards fighting for his country, whereas Owen’s Dulce et Decorum est demonstrates a realistic view of the senseless horrors of war. Both poets utilise similar poetic techniques of imagery and sound devices to express their contradictory views of the atrocious events of the greatest war that the world had ever seen at that time. The Soldier was written at the beginning of World War One before anyone had a chance to experience the atrocity of a world war. The sonnet portrays a romanticised view of the positives of war for his home†¦show more content†¦By creating these nurturing, peaceful images of a beautiful countryside, Brooke evokes pride from his primary audience, which in turn creates a sense of nationalism. Furthermore, references to the themes of heaven and the afterlife create comforting images in the reader’s mind. Brooke describes a ‘pulse in the eternal mind’ for the ‘hearts at peace under an English heaven’, suggesting that those who die fighting for their country will find themselves in a heaven as idyllic as England. The paradisiacal images created by Brooke are a stark contrast to the gruesome images featured in Owen’s poem. Dulce et Decorum est is rich in similes that graphically illustrate the goriest details of war. The soldiers in the poem a re described as ‘old beggars’ who are ‘coughing like hags’, which illustrates a loss of dignity, health and the innocence associated with youth. As the poem progresses, a soldier is the victim of a gas attack and is described vividly, with ‘white eyes, writhing in his face’ as ‘blood comes gargling from his froth-corrupted lungs, obscene as cancer’. Owen’s dark subject matter is further explored through his juxtaposition of ‘children ardent for desperate glory’ and soldiers marching like ‘beggars under sacks’. The use of these similes and images shocks the reader and conveys the ruthless reality of war. Furthermore, the distinctive use of sound devices by both poets further illustrates their opposing views on war. The use of alliteration to createShow MoreRelatedThe War And The Reality Of War1943 Words   |  8 PagesThe attitudes to war and the reality of war are presented and developed in the play, Henry V and a selection of WW1 poems in a variety of ways. Parts of the play can be linked in with WW1 poems such as The Soldier by Rupert Brooke, Who s for the Game by Jessie Pope, Suicide in the Trenches by Siegfried Sassoon and Dulce Et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen. The Henry V play is set in England in the early fifteenth century. The political situation in England is tense: King Henry IV hasRead More A Comparison of Dulce Et Decorum Est and Exposure Essay2345 Words   |  10 PagesA Comparison of Dulce Et Decorum Est and Exposure Traditional war poetry gives the idea of patriotic idealism of war. This style of poetry implies that war is patriotic and that people who fight for their country are honorable. But many of the poets do not portray war as it really is, by glossing over the gory details with attractive images. Many traditional war poems were written before the war to persuade and encourage young boys to become loyal soldiers. Many of the soldiers were taught

Alcohol Dependency Problem Drinking Free Essays

Alcohol Dependency Problem Drinking John Greenwald Edinboro University Introduction It is difficult to locate someone in the United States who feels that alcohol dependency and problem drinking is not a national problem. (Anton, R. 2010) Alcohol dependency and problem drinking has been at the forefront of policy debates at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels regarding healthcare expenses and outcomes, legal matters, and social implications for generations. We will write a custom essay sample on Alcohol Dependency: Problem Drinking or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most times it is addressed in conjunction with drug abuse. (Anton, R. 010) A general population survey conducted earlier last decade estimated that the prevalence of problem drinking at 4. 65% and alcohol dependence at 3. 81% respectively in the United States. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) There are numerous ways to treat alcohol related disorders. Here are three of those interventions auricular acupuncture, 12 step based recovery programs, and moderation management program. Auricular Acupuncture Auricular acupuncture is a holistic approach that originated in the United States during the 80’s. This form of acupuncture is widely used to treat alcohol dependency in the United States and United Kingdom as an alternative holistic approach. (Alster, M. 2010) The treatment uses five auricular acupuncture points referred to as NADA protocol, the acupuncture points are located in the ear. This intervention is rooted in traditional Chinese medicine. (Alster, M. 2010) The acupuncture points used during this treatment are similar from client to client. (Alster, M. 010) The treatment modality is used in conjunction with traditional alcohol detoxification protocols, as to protect the client from physiological harm from detoxing from alcohol. One study the reported short term benefits of this intervention included feelings of relaxation, contentment, and enjoyment mixed with more long term benefits like analgesia, increases in sleep quality, and a reduction in alcohol consumption, anxiety, and cravings. (Alster, M. 2010) In addition to the positive short term benefits there were some ne gative side effects that were reported such as feelings of light eadedness, burning sensations, and feelings of heat at needle sites. (Alster, M. 2010) Furthermore, there were some initial reports of anxiety even before treatment started which was found to be largely attributed to a client’s fear of needles, doubt of effectiveness, and fear of something foreign. (Alster, M. 2010) Many of these negative side effects dissipated as time passed. (Alster, M. 2010) The aforementioned study of this modality paints an overall positive view of this approach however another study drew correlations that were not as positive. The later study did find similar short term results which included a reduction in alcohol consumption and an improvement in overall psychological well-being. (Ashton, Nodiyal, Green, Moore, Heather, 2009) However, the long term results failed to indicate significant indications of the overall effectiveness of auricular acupuncture in long term reduction in consumption, anxiety, and cravings. (Ashton et al. , 2009) 12-Step Based Recovery Programs Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded in 1935, by Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob Smith, as self-help 12-step abstinence based approach to spiritual and character development. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) To this day, the AA fellowship is free to join for anyone who is alcoholic and wants to be a member which makes it an appealing option for many resource strapped clients and social workers. Later in the 1950’s the (AA) model was introduced into a professional setting by a non-profit organization called Hazelden Foundation, which is still used widely by many treatment facilities today. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) The Hazelden model calls for an individualized intervention plan, which includes family involvement, in the context of a 28 day inpatient setting combined with participation in AA while in treatment and post treatment as a part of an aftercare plan. Typically in this model clients also undergo cognitive-behavioral therapy and/or motivational enhancement therapy which focuses on negative consequences resulting from alcohol use and identification of triggers which can be people, places, things, and events. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) In one study researchers found hat clients who suffered from alcoholism only, whom did not have a dual diagnosis or a co-occurring diagnosis, who utilized this intervention, had more abstinent days than those treated by other methods. These individuals showed significant positive outcomes which included a higher percentage of abstinent days and a decreased number of drinks consumed on drinking days. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) Additionally those who used medications to help manage side effects such as cravings and anxiety reported even better outcomes. (Huebner Wolfgang-Kantor, 2011) Another study suggests that there is a lack of effectiveness and perhaps even harm inflicted by the 12 step model. (Miller, J. 2008) This study implies, â€Å"that despite decades of dominance of approaches based on 12 step principles, there have been no rigorously controlled research designs comparing 12 step treatment outcomes to no-treatment controls, and a recent review found no gains in outcome for 12 step interventions over alternative interventions. † (Miller, J. 2008) The counter research suggests that interventions which are based off of the Hazelden model â€Å"appear at best ineffective and perhaps even harmful. (Miller, J. 2008) Additionally it is noteworthy that there seems to be a lack of evidence based research that supports positive outcomes greater than negative outcomes. (Miller, J. 2008) The ethics and values of many helping professions are to empower clients to overcome their own issues and to achieve the right to self-determination. With that being said t he 12 step model instills moral guilt, deviance, and labeling while infusing its members with feelings of powerlessness and dependence on the fellowship of AA thus using external rather than internal forces to effect change. Miller, J. 2008) The disease concept of alcoholism is a central tenant to the 12 step model; it â€Å"pathologizes† individual clients by removing focus from social and mental processes that may attributing to the alcoholic behaviors. (Miller, J. 2008) The intervention appears to â€Å"reinforce counter therapeutic cognitions and behaviors. † (Miller, J. 2008) Furthermore it has been noted that the 12 step culture itself can be hostile and scrutinizing towards non-adherents. (Miller, J. 2008) Moderation Management In the 1960’s professionals in the addiction field started to ask the uestion, can alcoholics learn to control their drinking or must they abstain completely from alcohol? Moderation Management (MM) is a mutual help fellowship desi gned for problem drinkers, not alcohol dependent people, who wish to pursue a goal of moderate drinking. (Lembke Humphreys, 2012) MM’s is based on the problem drinkers individual ability to adhere to MM guidelines, which first includes a 30 day period of abstinence which is then followed by limits on daily alcohol intake. (Lembke Humphreys, 2012) The primary goal being moderate drinking, not abstinence, which can be obtained by following a 9 step approach. Lembke Humphreys, 2012) One study found that alcohol dependent clients found more positive outcomes with the 12-step recovery model. Data showed that people who reported to be only problem drinkers, without alcohol dependence, were able to recover from a diagnosed problem by a rate of 30-60% depending on whether they received treatment or just attended MM. (Lembke Humphreys, 2012) There were reports of people who identified as problem drinkers, but were really alcohol dependent, who eventually left MM because they reali zed they could not drink in moderation and needed an abstinence based intervention. Lembke Humphreys, 2012) MM widens the range of attractive options available to people with alcohol disorders. Some clinicians feel that MM is a good place to start because it can be appealing to alcohol dependent people who are adamantly opposed to abstaining entirely. (Lembke Humphreys, 2012) These same people eventually realize, because of MM’s 9 step program, that they are not able to drink in moderation and after defeat in this avenue may become more willing to try an abstinent only intervention such as AA thus serving as a starting point for anyone with an alcohol disorder. Lembke Humphreys, 2012) Interventions such as MM reinforces many helping professions code of ethics in the sense that it puts the client in the control of finding what works best for them and aids them in achieving self-efficacy. (Miller, J. 2008) Conclusion To pick one intervention that I feel is the best pick for evidence based practice in Social Work would be difficult. This is something that each clinician will have to decide on a client by client basis. Starting where the client is will help the Social Worker determine which intervention is best. I found that there is a lack of scientific research which gave any kind of correlations to any one of these interventions. Much of the research suggests that a combination of interventions along with starting where the client is what produces the best results and that no exact intervention was a smoking gun. If I had to pick one intervention that I feel is most useful in terms of helping a client who presented with alcohol dependency or who described themselves as problem drinkers, the intervention I would chose would be Moderation Management, if ethically appropriate. MM allows the client to choose his or her direction with where they are at in their alcohol dependency or problem drinking. Thus, allowing them to decide for themselves if they want to simply moderate their consumption or abstain entirely. References Zemore, S. , Kaskutas, L. (2008). 12-step involvement and peer helping in day hospital and residential programs. Substance Use Misuse, 48, 1882-1903. Huebner, R. , Wolfgang Kantor, L. (2011). Advances in alcoholism treatment. Alcohol Research Health, 33(4), 295-299. Lembke, A. Humphreys, K. (2012). Moderation management: A mutual-help organization for problem drinkers who are not alcohol dependent. Journal of Groups in Addiction Recovery, 7, 130-141. Alster, M. (2010). Auricular acupuncture at calvary alcohol other drug services: The first year. Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, 16(2), 73-75. Ashton, H. , Nodiyal, A. , Green, D. , Moore, B. , Heather, N. (2009). Acupuncture or counseling: outcomes and predic tors of treatment choice in a non-statutory addiction service. Journal of Substance Use, 14(3-4), 151-160. Anton, R. (2010). Substance abuse is a disease of the human brain: Focus on alcohol. Journal of Law, Medicine Ethics, Winter 2010, 735-744. Miller, J. (2008). 12-step treatment for alcohol and substance abuse revisited: Best available evidence suggests lack of effectiveness or harm. Int J Ment Health Addiction, 6, 568-576. AA Intergroup. (n. d. ). Online intergroup Alcoholics Anonymous publications. In online Intergroup: Alcoholics Anonymous. http://www. aa-intergroup. org/. How to cite Alcohol Dependency: Problem Drinking, Papers

Little Women By Louisa May Alcott (1832

Little Women By Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) Essay Little Womenby Louisa May Alcott(1832-1888)Type of Work:Sentimental, life dramaSettingA small New England town; mid 1800sPrincipal CharactersMrs. March (Marinee), mother of fourdaughtersMr. March, her husband, and army chaplainin the U.S. Civil WarMeg, their 16-year-old daughterJo, 15, wants to be an independent writer(and serves as the novels narrator)Beth, a frail girl of 13, the heartof her familyAmy, 12, the beautiful pampered youngestdaughterTheodore Lawrence (Laurie), the boy whomoves in next doorStory OverveiwThe upcoming Christmas looked like itwould be a bleak affair to the four March girls. With their father at theCivil War battlefront, and their saintly mother, Marmee, as they calledher, working to support her family, the holiday would be void of many ofits traditional pleasures. With the dollar Marmee said they might spend,the girls each settled on buying simple gifts for their mother and forthe Hummel family down the road; and receiving, in kind, surprise treatsof ice cr eam and bonbons from rich old Mr. Lawrence next door. The girls resolved to face life as Pilgrims,to overcome their weaknesses, and be good little women by the time theirfather returned. The oldest, Meg, determined to enjoy her work more andfret less about her looks. The tomboy, Jo, pledged to better control hertemper, upgrade her writing abilities and develop feminine qualities. Amydesired to be less selfish and less vain concerning her beautiful goldenhair. Everyone believed Beth, the home-body, to be perfect, but she earnestlyprayed to overcome her fear of people. The girls labored for the next yearto acquire these qualities, with much success and occasional failure. At years end, Meg confidently and excitedlyattended a fashionable New Years dance. She talked Jo into accompanyingher, but Jo didnt care much for girls or girlish gossip, and felt asmuch out of place as a colt in a flower garden. Running from a prospectivedance-mate, Jo hid behind a curtain. But she wasnt the only bashful one. To her surprise, there she met little Theodore Lawrence, or Laurie, aseveryone referred to him, the new next-door-neighbor boy. Awkwardly, theyintroduced themselves, but as they peeped through the curtain together,gossiping and chatting, they soon felt like old acquaintances. A lifelongfriendship was formed. Laurie had been orphaned as a baby and now livedwith his crusty Grandfather Lawrence in his great mansion. In the Marchfamily, Laurie found a circle of sisters and a mother he never knew; andthey found, in him, a brother and a son. Through that year, the girls learned tobe happy in their work. Meg, by spending two weeks at the estate of a wealthygirl friend, discovered how wonderful her own home life was, even if herfamily was poor. Jo detected that she was not the only one struggling withoutbursts of anger. Much to her amazement, her mother also possessed ahidden temper. This knowledge helped Jo believe she could, with effort,control hers. After all, her great wish was to become a famous romancewriter; reaching that goal would require discipline. Jos romantic novelswere soon published. Amy continued to grow more beautiful, but also cameto understand the need for humility. After being embarrassingly reprimandedbefore the whole school, she began to understand that conceit spoils thefinest genius. And Beth remained extremely shy, but was still the heartand joy of her family. Everyone, especially Jo, came to gentle Beth forcomfort. .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .postImageUrl , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:hover , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:visited , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:active { border:0!important; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:active , .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u029502ad0cdc09096d57fbd0dfc4305c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: WHy you really don't hate reality television. EssayOne winter day, a telegram arrived fromthe war department: Mr. March was critically ill. Heartsick by this news,Marmee felt she needed to be with her husband. With no money to spare,Joe offered to sell her only vanity her long, flowing chestnut hair. The sacrifice, though tearfully made, brought twenty-five dollars, andfinanced the trip. Mr. Lawrence sent along John Brooke, Lauries tutor,to assist Mrs. March in her journey. Both Mr. and Mrs. March grew to bevery fond of John and he, in turn, became very fond of Meg. Back at home, dark days were to visit thelittle women. Patterning herself after her mother, Beth continued to carefor the large, impoverished Hummel family. One night she returned homedepressed and crying. She had just held the Hummel baby in her arms ashe died of Scarlet Fever. Beth also contracted the fever, becoming muchmore infirm than anyone expected. It was a somber time for all, as shehovered near death. Fearing the worst, the girls finally telegraphed theirmother of Beths deteriorating condition. But the very night Marmee returned,Beths crisis passed and her health improved. It was a happy family thatwelcomed their mother home. As the second Christmas arrived, the girlsanticipated their fathers homecoming. Their joy was complete when Lauriearrived and announced, Heres another Christmas present for the Marchfamily, and in walked their father. During the jubilant family reunion,Mr. March admired his family, reflecting on how the girls had changed overthe years. Meg had defeated much of her vanity, and had cultivated industryand the womanly skills to create a happy home. Jo had become a gentle younglady, who dressed properly and no longer used slang. He noticed that Amynow took the poorer cut of meat, waited on everyone with patience and humor,and seldom gazed at herself in the mirror. As for Beth, her father simplyheld her near, grateful she was still alive. They all agreed Mr. Marchsabsence had been a productive period, and that the girls were becominglittle women of great talent, beauty and grace. Three years passed. Much to Jos initialhorror, she saw the family begin to split up when Meg became Mrs. JohnBrooke. Like all new wives, Meg learned the art of homemaking and how toorganize and spend money frugally. Shortly, twins, Daisy and Demi, arrived. Meg discovered that John, too, could help take care of the children, asshe began to include him even more in her life. Jo also had matured, and her friend, Laurie,fell more deeply in love with her. Despite all her efforts to change hisheart, Laurie proposed marriage. Jo, devoted to her writing and publishing,was dismayed because she could never love Laurie more than as a brother,and refused his proposal. Brokenhearted, Laurie left with his uncle ona tour of Europe. But Laurie was not the only one voyaging to Europe; Amywas traveling there, accompanying her rich aunt. She soon learned someof lifes harsher lessons. To her initial disappointment, she first detectedthat she would never be a great artist. She also came to recognize thatmarrying for money rather than love would not lead to happiness. Inevitably,Amys and Lauries paths crossed and they each gradually grew in love forthe other. To the delight of all, they too were wed. But at home the family grieved a greatloss. Beth, never fully recovered from the fever, had slowly faded away,no longer to sit contentedly by the fire knitting and smiling. Jo uneartheda great emptiness in her heart and life after her sisters death. Meg andJohn, and Amy and Laurie were happily married. Though Jo had resolved neverto marry, still she felt an awful loneliness as she wondered what directionher life should take. While struggling with these feelings, a tutor enteredher life, Professor Bhaer. He was an older, German gentleman, filled witna genteel love. People turned to him because of the compassion he so freelygave, akin to Beths spirit. This love healed Jo. They married and openeda school for lads, a good, happy homelike school. Jo looked after theboys while the professor taught them in the large, Plumfield home, willedto Jo by her aunt. .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .postImageUrl , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:hover , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:visited , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:active { border:0!important; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:active , .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u63c368e179c7b6a1f2a327db5e0207fa:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Critical Review of 1984 By Geo EssayAs the sisters gathered together to celebrateMarmees birthday, they agreed that their lives were happy, rich and full. The little women had become cultured, confident young ladies. There atthe table, surrounded by her children and grandchildren, along with oneempty chair, symbolizing their love for Beth, sat the contented mother. She wished that such a moment could last forever. CommentaryLouisa May Alcotts most famous novel,Little Women is based on her own family life in Concord, Massachusetts. Like Jo, the books heroine, Louisa hungered to gain independence and toimprove her familys situation by writing successful novels. Little Womenis a cheerful, wholesome account of the daily life of a highly principledfamily. It is considered one of the earliest realistic novels suitablefor older children; and, as a childrens story, the language is often stilted. Alcott also tends to moralize. But the book also holds a personal charmfor grownups, who may see their own carefree childhood the simple joysof youth and deep love of family mirrored in its pages.