Migraine Headaches Are The Result Of A Disturbance In The Neurochemist

Migraine headaches are the result of a disturbance in the neurochemistry of the central nervous system. They are relatively common, affecting three times as many women as men. Migraine sufferers typically report a definite pattern to their headaches, and they can report what stimuli bring them on. Most migraine sufferers experience their first attack before the age of 20. There is no single cause of migraines, but the tendency to get migraines does tend to run in families. When a migraine occurs, it means that something has altered several of the neurotransmitter-sensitive receptors located on the outside surface of the nerve cells (neurons) so that the nervous system is no longer able to constantly maintain the natural balance that the nervous system is intended to maintain. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that nerve cells (neurons) use to communicate messages to each other. Receptors are special areas that receive these chemical messages. The key neurotransmitter in migraine is called serotonin (often referred to in the scientific literature as 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptophan). If something interferes with the normal functioning (production, release, receptor docking, and/or re-uptake) of serotonin, that disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system and can lead to various symptoms associated with migraine. The severe pain associated with migraine occurs when the mechanism that normally inhibits and/or mediates pain is disabled. There is no actual tissue damage occuring during a migraine attack. Instead, the pain results from a deranged neurochemistry. Migraine pain is like a loud fire alarm bell ringing when there is no fire. Scientists suspect that a caffeine withdrawal could be the possible cause of common migraines. Why? Well, caffeine is a powerful psychoactive drug that is addictive. Caffeine withdrawals produce all the same symptoms as migraine. Chronic caffeine use causes a number of changes to the central nervous system. Caffeine use increases the number of some types of serotonin receptors and some types of adenosine receptors as well. Adenosine is another neurotransmitter; adenosine strongly inhibits serotonin release. Chronic caffeine use increases the number of adenosine receptors.(The body is trying to compensate for the constant presence of caffeine, which occupies and blockades adenosine receptors and thus interferes with adenosine reception.) When caffeine is withdrawn, however, the chronic caffeine user is left with too many adenosine receptors. Having too many adenosine receptors is equivalent to having too much adenosine. As a result, serotonin release is inhibited and this leads to migraine symptoms. As you know there are many drugs used against migraine. Many of these drugs contain caffeine, for good reason: caffeine relieves migraine by reversing caffeine withdrawal. Migraine drugs that contain caffeine include Fiorinal (40mg caffeine), Fioricet (40mg caffeine), Excedrin (65mg caffeine), Anacin (32mg caffeine), Cafergot, Norgesic Forte (60mg caffeine), and others. Sumatriptan (Imitrex) is effective in relieving migraine attacks presumably because the sumatriptan molocule mimics (is very similar to) the serotonin molocule, and thus is called a serotonin agonist (helper). Sumatriptan, in other words, makes up for the shortfall of serotonin by occupying certain types of serotonin receptors. Sumatriptan is called a selective serotonin agonist because it has a greater affinity for (sticks more to) certain types of serotonin receptors than others. Other drugs, such as Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft, are intended for the treatment of depression but they also seem to reduce frequency and/or severity of headaches including migraine (although they are not as effective as sumatriptan against oncoming migraine attacks). These drugs are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which means they interfere in the reuptake of serotonin back into the interior of the nerve cells (neurons). To understand what reuptake means you need to understand that neurotransmitters, once released, must be quickly grabbed and transported back into the interior of nerve cells for reuse. That must happen to "clears the boards" for the next message. If something (like Paxil) interferes with re-uptake of serotonin, that makes more serotonin available to dock with serotonin receptors. That explains why these anti-depressant drugs help reduce migraine to a certain extent. If caffeine withdrawal causes migraines then there is a way to end your migraines without surgery. You would have to either quit caffeine entirely or else maintain consistent daily caffeine intake. To do either you would need to be aware of all caffeine sources in food, drink, and

Sentence Building with Adjective Clauses

Sentence Building with Adjective Clauses In our study of adjective clauses, weve learned the following: The adjective clausea word group that modifies a nounis a common form of subordination.An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun.The two main types of adjective clauses are restrictive and nonrestrictive. Now were ready to practice building and combining sentences with adjective clauses. Consider how these two sentences can be combined: My mp3 player fell apart after a few weeks.My mp3 player cost over $200. By substituting the relative pronoun which for the subject of the second sentence, we can create a single sentence containing an adjective clause: My mp3 player, which cost over $200, fell apart after a few weeks. Or we may choose to substitute which for the subject of the first sentence: My mp3 player, which fell apart after a few weeks, cost over $200. Put what you think is the main idea in the main clause, the secondary (or subordinate) idea in the adjective clause. And keep in mind that an adjective clause usually appears after the noun it modifies. PRACTICE: Building Sentences with Adjective ClausesCombine the sentences in each set into a single, clear sentence with at least one adjective clause. Subordinate the information that you think is of secondary importance. When you are done, compare your new sentences with the sample combinations below. Keep in mind that many combinations are possible, and in some cases you may prefer your own sentences to the original versions. The first alarm clock woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet.The first alarm clock was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.Some children have not received flu shots.These children must visit the school doctor.Success encourages the repetition of old behavior.Success is not nearly as good a teacher as failure.I showed the arrowhead to Rachel.Rachels mother is an archaeologist.Merdine was born in a boxcar.Merdine was born somewhere in Arkansas.Merdine gets homesick every time she hears the cry of a train whistle.The space shuttle is a rocket.The rocket is manned.This rocket can be flown back to earth.This rocket can be reused.Henry Aaron played baseball.Henry Aaron played with the Braves.Henry Aaron played for 20 years.Henry Aaron was voted into the Hall of Fame.The vote was taken in 1982.Oxygen is colorless.Oxygen is tasteless.Oxygen is odorless.Oxygen is the chief life-supporting element of all plant life.Oxygen is the chief life-supporting element of all animal life.Bushido is the tr aditional code of honor of the samurai.Bushido is based on the principle of simplicity.Bushido is based on the principle of honesty.Bushido is based on the principle of courage.Bushido is based on the principle of justice. Merdine danced on the roof.It was the roof of her trailer.Merdine danced during the thunderstorm.The thunderstorm flooded the county.The thunderstorm was last night. When you have completed all ten sets, compare your new sentences with the sample combinations below. The first alarm clock, which woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet, was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.Children who have not received flu shots must visit the school doctor.Success, which encourages the repetition of old behavior, is not nearly as good a teacher as  failure.I showed the arrowhead to Rachel, whose mother is an archaeologist.Merdine, who was born in a boxcar somewhere in Arkansas, gets homesick every time she hears the cry of a train whistle.The space shuttle is a manned rocket that can be flown back to earth and reused.Henry Aaron, who played baseball with the Braves for 20 years, was voted into the Hall of Fame in 1982.Oxygenwhich is colorless, tasteless, and odorlessis the chief life-supporting element of all plant and animal life.Bushido, which is the traditional code of honor of the samurai, is based on the principles of simplicity, honesty, courage, and justice.Merdine  danced on the roof of her trailer during the thunderstorm that flooded the county las t night. See also:  Combining Sentences and Building Paragraphs With Adjective Clauses

Industry project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Industry project - Assignment Example Women are expected by culture to remain home and respect their husbands (Shallal, 2011.They also expressed that they felt nervous to work in places that were highly male dominated. In addition, with oil discovery, women have highly expressed reluctance in jobs since their husbands provide everything. It is out of these demands following the career woman in UAE that made them highly dissatisfied with their work. In fact, women exhibited conflicting preferences when it came to working and home chores and usually resulted to absenteeism, poor turn over as well as deteriorated health. According to Les & Baruch, various aspects hindered employees in dispensing their duties. These challenges added to employee dissatisfaction or demoralization in the Middle East. One of the challenges included corruption as well as political interference in the public domain. Moreover, the Organizations in the Middle East were to blame for employee dissatisfaction owing to meager salaries offered as well as unsuitable working conditions in the public sector. Other reason for the employee dissatisfaction was owing to the fact that there were no reward mechanisms to recognize the employee’s efforts. Many employees also did not comprehend their jobs and were very confused with what to do. In addition, the employees did not comprehend what their supervisor’s role was in the work place and their leaders would. The other challenge projected was that the public sector did not offer frequent training to its workers and this made them perform badly. Moreover, Alabdelkarim, Muftah & Hodgson study was an interesting study concerning employee dissatisfaction. The study explained the concept of emiratisation whereby the government offered jobs to the locals who had the required skills. On the other hand, the private sector did not employ locals out of the belief that they were under skilled

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Research Paper - 6

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) - Research Paper Example Management of risks associated with exposure to PAHS depends on the levels and the duration of exposure. If an individual is exposed to acute high doses, decontamination and other supportive measures should be the basic objectives (Feng, Sun and Song, 2014). Decontamination should be carried out by washing up the individual and cleaning up the clothes. The skin of the victim should be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water as soon as possible. The victim should also be isolated from a polluted environment to a place with clean air (Plant et al., 2012). Other supportive care such as pulmonary functional tests should be routinely carried out. X-rays to determine the level of damage to the lungs should be carried out also. For ocular contamination, the patient should be treated by irrigating the eye (Whitacre and Ware, 2008). If an individual has been exposed to low levels of PAHS for a long time, they eventually develop toxicity. For effective care, the patient should be taught about the risks associated with exposure to PAHS and how to avoid further exposure (Friis, 2008). They should be informed of the possibility of developing bronchogenic cancer and the additive effects of exposure to cigarette smoke and other related toxic agents. The parents should be made to follow-up periodic evaluations for treatment of symptoms associated with PAHS exposure. Risk communication to individuals exposed to PAHS should take into account the challenges associated with trying to maintain a balance between concern and undue alarm to the patient. This is because PAHS are complex, and hence it is impossible to predict their carcinogenicity based only on several of the components. Effective risk communication should involve a comprehensive education programme on the dangers of PAHS exposure. Medical surveillance of workers who are at the risk of exposure to PAHS should be done to inform them of the dangers of overexposure

Should Exams Be Abolished Essay Example for Free

Should Exams Be Abolished Essay According to a recent survey of â€Å"Education Newspaper†, what cause students to be frightened the most is â€Å"exams†. Some students say that the exams should be abolished because they make students absolutely anxious and stressful. However, the exams play an important role in school’s life and also have many advantages. So I believe that the exams should not be abolished because of some reasons. The most important reason is that exams are a method to examine students’ level and .Depending on results of exams; teachers can determine how students acquire knowledge. If marks are from 7-10 that mean students apprehend well the content of subjects, teachers will give them some difficult exercises to help students develop their creation. On the other hand, if marks are below 7 that mean students don’t understand clearly the subjects. In addition, after doing exams, students can know more about their knowledge. Students will determine what are weak points, where are the holes in their knowledge. From these, students review these parts in order not to puzzle when do them later Another reason is that exams make students to study harder. Some fast or mini exams will force students to attend the classes frequently.Some teachers don’t want to remind when students have mini exams. Any time teachers see some interesting exercises, teachers will gives students do those which are like mini tests. If students don’t attend class those days, they will lose one or two column marks, which make their mid-term results low It’s true that exams make students stressful and anxious. Some students say that when exams come near, they have to cram a lot of lesson in short time, which make them exhaust. That is the reason why students wish exams would be abolished. However, these pressures aren’t caused by exams but students. During the studying, students should take note the main points of each subject and review after classes. And when they have exams, they just read again but can remember the important information. They no longer feel stressful in order to cram the lessons. Moreover, if there are no the exams, how can students examine their levels? They study more and more, but they don’t know what the destinations are and how many percents they apprehend the knowledge after studying. As the result, they feel vague and bored. In the end, students’ studying will not be effective if there are no exams. Although they make students absolutely anxious, they  shouldn’t be abolished.

outline of socrates :: essays research papers fc

Socrates: 1. Sophists ~> professional teachers... Socrates was the greatest of them all (469-399 B.C.E.) 2. Followed the Sophists' lead in turning away from the study of the cosmos and concentrating on the case of the human. Unlike the way the Sophists discoursed about the human being, he wanted to base all argumentation on objectively valid definitions. 3. Socrates' discourse moved in two directions A. Outward - to objective definitions B. Inward - to discover the inner person, the soul, the source of all truth to Socrates. 4. He was hardly ever able to answer the questions he asked. 5. Spent much time in the streets and markets of Athens. A. Querying every man he met about whether that man knew anything. B. Said, "If there was an afterlife, he would pose the same question to the shades in Hades." 6. Socrates professed, ironically, that he knew nothing, because he at least knew that he knew nothing, whereas the others falsely believed themselves to know something. 7. He, himself, wrote no books, but his conversations were remembered by his disciple Plato, and later published by him as dialogues... Very often these questions emphasized a specific philosophical question. The typical Socratic dialogue has 3 divisions: A. A question is posed. Socrates becomes excited and enthusiastic to find someone who claims to know something. B. Finds "minor flaws" in his companion's definition and slowly begins to unravel it, forcing his partner to admit ignorance (in one dialogue, his target ended up in tears). C. An agreement is reached by the admittedly ignorant companion to pursue truth seriously. 8. In his quest for truth, Socrates managed to offend many of the powerful and pompous figures of Athens, who later conspired against him, getting him indicted for teaching false doctrines, for impiety, and for corrupting the youth. 9. Socrates was brought to trial, with the hopes to humiliate him by forcing him to beg for mercy. A. On the contrary, Socrates maligned his prosecutors and angered the unruly jury of 500 by lecturing to them about their ignorance. When he was asked to suggest his own punishment, he recommended that the Athenians give him free board and lodging in the town hall... The jury condemned him to death by a vote of 280 to 220

Actus Reus – Paper

ACTUS REUS: OMISSION & CAUSATION The general basis for imposing liability in  criminal law  is that the defendant must be proved to have committed a guilty act whilst having had a guilty state of mind. The physical elements are collectively called the actus reus and the accompanied mental state is called the mens rea. It is the fundamental duty of the prosecution to prove both of these elements of the offence to the satisfaction of the judge or jury beyond reasonable doubt. In the absence of such proof the defendant will be acquitted.ACTUS REUS An actus reus consists of more than just an act. It also consists of whatever circumstances and consequences are recognised for liability for the offence in question – in other words all the elements of an offence other than the mental element. The term actus reus has been given a much wider meaning by Glanville Williams in his criminal law. He says : When he use the technical tern actus reus we include all the external circumstance s and consequences specified in the rule of law as constituting the forbidden situation.Reus must be taken as indicating the situation specified in the actus reus as on that, given any necessary mental element, is forbidden by law. In other words, acus reus means the whole definition of the crime with the exception of the mental element – and it even includes a mental element in so far as that is contained in the definition of an act. Actus reus includes negative as well as positive elements. For example, as stared earlier, the actus reus of murder is the causing of death of a person.It also includes circumstances, such as the person whose death has been caused was not as a consequence of a sentence or death given to him or that the death was caused within the territorial jurisdiction of the state. OMISSIONS IN CRIMES Omissions are controversial for two main reasons_ first, whether and to what extent it is justifiable omissions rather than acts; and secondly, whether liabilit y for omissions rather than act requirement in criminal law. Pursuing the second point here, much has been made above of the importance f requiring proof that the defendant voluntarily did something to produce prohibited conduct or consequence. In so far as this can be termed an ‘act requirement’, are omissions a true exception to it? If they are, is this another argument against criminalizing them? One much-discussed preliminary question is the distinction between acts and omissions. Sometimes it is argued that certain verbs imply action and therefore exclude liability for omissions, and that the criminal law should respect. The distinctions flowing from this. English courts have often used this linguistic or interpretive approach.It has led to a variety of decisions in different statutes, without much discussion of the general principles underlying omissions liability. The law commissions considerably draft criminal code may be said to signal the continuation of this approach, by redefining the homicide offences in terms of ‘causing death’ rather than ‘killing’, and refining the damage offences in terms of ‘causing damage’, rather than ‘damaging’, so as ‘to leave fully open the courts the possibility of so constructing the relevant (statutory) provisions as to impose liability for omissions’.The draft cod would therefore remove any linguistic awkwardness in saying, for example, that a parent killed a child by failing to feed it; but it does so in this specific instance, and without proclaiming a general principle, that the act requirement may be fulfilled by an omission of a duty can be established. Attachment to the vagaries of the language is no proper basis for delineating the boundaries of criminal liability.In some situations the courts, following the linguistic approach, have nevertheless found themselves able to impose omissions liability. In Speck (1977)3 the defendant was charged with committing an act of gross indecency with or towards a child. The evidence was that an 8 yr old girl placed her hand on his trousers over his penis. he allowed that hand to remain there for some minutes, causing him to have an erection.The court of appeal held that the defendants failure to remove the hand amounted to an invitation to the child with the act, or it created a duty in an adult to put an end to the innocent touching of this kind, with omissions liability for not fulfilling the duty. The analysis is similar to that in miller (1983) where D fell asleep whilst smoking, woke up to find the mattress smouldering, but simply left the room and went to sleep elsewhere. He was convicted of causing criminal damage by fire, on the basis that a person who initiates a sequence of events nnocently and then fails to do anything to stop the sequence should be regarded as having caused the whole sequence. On this view the conduct constitutes a single, continuing act; Miller caused the damage because he took no steps to extinguish the fire he had innocently started. It must be doubted whether these efforts to find an act which then coincides in point in point of time with defendants knowledge and intentions are convincing. surely the courts are imposing liability for an omission on these cases, by recognizing that a duty arises.Speck is a little different from miller since the original act of the speck was of the girl, and the duty must therefore amount the recognition of an obligation on an adult to put an end to the indecent yet innocent touching by a child. In so far as these decisions appear to extend the statutory wording, are they objectionable on grounds of retroactivity and lack of fair warning, or defensible as applications of existing common law doctrine to new situations?In other situations it seems possible to offer plausible reasons for regarding the same event as either an act or an omission, and in some cases the courts have sought to exp loit this ambiguity when dealing with problematic medical issues. Yet it is one thing to say that a healthcare professional who decides not to replace an empty bag for a drip-feed has made an omission, whereas switching a ventilator off is an act; is another thing to maintain that the act-omission distinction should be crucial to any determination of the criminal liability in the two situations.In Airedale NHS trust v bland (1993)the house of lords held that it would be lawful for a doctor to withdraw treatment from a patient in a persistent vegetative state, even though death would inevitable be hastened by that conduct. The house held that the withdrawal of treatment would constitute and omission, and thus regarded the duties of the doctor as the central issue. The decision was that the doctor a doctor has no duty to continue life supplying treatment when it is no longer in the best interest of the patient, having regard to responsible medical opinion.However the court of appeal d eclined to adopt this subterfuge in Re A(conjoined twins: Surgical separation), holding that the surgical separation of the twins would undoubtedly an act, and subsequently deciding that carrying out an operation which would result in the death of one twin in order to save the life of other could be justifies on the grounds of necessity. This demonstration of the fragility of the act-omission distinction of the vagaries fthe English language indicates that it may be simplistic to oppose omissions liability in the principle.There are some clear cases of omission in which it is desirable to have criminal liability, such as the parent who neglects to feed her or his child or neglects to protect it from abuse. Omissions can be involuntary or not, in the same way as acts; and provided, that the harm resulted because D failed to intervene, it can be argued that omissions are also causes. Omissions liability ay therefore satisfy the principles that no one should be held liable for bodily m ovements that he or she did not or could not direct.It may also satisfy the principle that no person should be held liable for the conduct or consequences that he or she did not cause. But one point of the act requirement is to exclude liability for mere thoughts that do not result in some bodily movement, and omissions fall foul to that. They do so for a good reason – that certain positive duties to act are so important that they can rightly be made the subject of criminal liability. Of course, such a duty should also be defined with sufficient certainty and made known to those affected by it.So long as these formal requirements are fulfilled there can be no fairness objection to holding a person liable, provided that he or she is capable of taking some steps to carry out the duty. CAUSATION IN CRIMES An event is very often the result of a number of factors. A factor is said to have caused a particular event if, without that factor or, the event would not have happened. Thus , a man is said to have caused the actus reus of a crime, if, that actus would not have occurred without his participation in what was done. Some casual relationships has to be established between his conduct and the prohibited result.A man is usually held criminally liable only for the consequences of his conduct as he foresaw, (or is crimes of negligence, he ought to have foreseen). The act must be the causa causans, ie, the immediate or proximate cause of the effect. When the facts are direct and simple, then establishing the causal nexus between the act and the effect may not be difficult, as for instance in a case of person shooting another person and thereby killing him. The causation can also be without any direct physical act. if the victim asks his way on a dark night nd the accused with the intention of causing his death, directs him to a path that he knows will bring him to a cliff edge , and the victing suffers a fatal fall, this is clearly murder, though the accused has done nothing more than utter words. This can be true in cases of abetment, incitement and conspiracy. In the instances stated above, it is not difficult to establish the direct result between the cause and the effect. The difficulty arises only in cases of multiple causation, where it is difficult to establish the imputability. Example: A, intending to kill B but only wounds him very slightly.A clearly has the requisite mens rea for murder, that is, he foresees and desires B’s death. Not let us assume that on his being ta ken to the hospital in an ambulance, a piece of masonry from a building falls on the ambulance and kills B; or, alternatively, that B has a rare blood disease which prevents his blood from coagulation so that the slight wound leads to his death, which it would not have done if he had not been suffering from this disease; or, alternatively, that B refuses to have the wound treated and dies of blood poisoning, which would not have occurred if B had had the wo unded treated.In all these cases, a problem of causation arises, i. e. , did A cause B’s death for the purposes of the criminal law so that he can be convicted of murder? If the result is too remote and accidental in its occurrence, then there is no criminal liability. CAUSATION AND NEGLIGENCE The difficulty of causation arises very often n cases of negligence. It has t be established that first, the conduct of the person was negligent and secondly, that but for the negligent act of accused, the accident would not have occurred. In other words, the actus reus should be causally connected to the act, which should be proved to be a negligent.In order to impose criminal liability under S 304A, IPC, it is essential to establish that death is the direct result of the rash or (and) negligent act of the accused. It must be causa causans – the immediate cause and not enough that it may be quasa sine qua non, ie, proximate cause. There can be no conviction when rashness or negl igence of third party intervenes. In Suleman rahiman mulani v state of Maharashtra the Supreme Court has approved his rule. In Suleman rahiman mulani the accused who was driving the jeep struck the deceased, as a result of which he sustained serious injuries. The ccused put the injured person in the jeep for medical treatment, but he died. Thereafter, the accused cremated the body. The accused was charged under s304A and 201 of the IPC. As per s 304A, there must be direct nexus between the death of a person and rash and negligent act of the accused that caused the death of the deceased. It was the case of the prosecution of the accused had possessed only a learner’s license and hence was guilty of causing the death of the deceased. The court held that there was no presumption in law that a person who possesses only a learner’s license or possesses no license at all, does not know driving.A person could for various reasons, including sheer indifference, might not have b een taken a regular license . there was evidence to show that the accused had driven the jeep to various places on the previous day of occurrence. So before the accused convicted under s304A, there must a proof that the accused drove in a rash and negligent manner and death was a direct consequence of such rash and negligent manner. In the absence of such evidence no offence under s 304A was made out. The accused was acquitted of the charges. MINIMAL CAUSATIONWhen death of a person is caused after medical treatment, it cannot be said that the treatment was not proper or inadequate, or had better treatment been given, the death would not have taken place. This is because, the intervention of the doctor is in the nature of minimum causation and hence its intervention would have played only a minor part, if any, in causing death. As far as the IPC is concerned, explanation 2 of s 299 specifically states that if an act causes death, even death could have been avoided by proper remedies and skilful treatment, the act shall be deemed to have caused death and the person will be criminally liable.If death results from an injury voluntarily caused, the person who causes the injury, therefore, is deemed to have caused the death, although the life of victim might have been saved if proper medical treatment, provided that it was administered in good faith by a competent physician or surgeon. In Moti singh v state of uttar Pradesh the deceased gayacharan had received two gunshot wounds in the abdomen which were dangerous to life. The injury was received on February 1960. There was no evidence when he was discharged from the hospital and whether he had fully recovered or not.He, however, died on march 1 1960. His body was cremated without post mortem being done. The supreme court held that the two gunshot injuries were dangerous to life were not sufficient for holding that gyancharans death, which took place about three weeks after the incident, was on account of the injuri es received by him. The court observed that in order to prove the charges on gyancharans murder, it was necessary to establish that he had died on account of injuries received on him.Since, the was no evidence to establish the cause of death, the accused could not be said to have caused the death of gyancharan. A crucial aspect highlighted by the court in the case was that the connection between the primary cause and the death should not be too remote. CONCLUSION Causation is a complex topic, with which we have been able to deal only brief here. Proof of causation is often said to be an essential precondition of criminal liability, but there is reason to doubt the generality of that requirement, notably in respect of accomplice liability and vicarious criminal liability.Rather than insisting on a universal requirement of causation, it may be preferable to argue that liability should be negatived, in general, by the voluntary intervening act of another. Several criticisms of the judi cial approach to three exceptional categories of case hace been advanced above. Often the explanations given by the courts are unconvincing. Whilst the traditional or standard causal theory emphasizes the significance of the last voluntary act, there is no reluctance to took wider or to massage the term ‘voluntary’ in certain situations, especially where D clearly stated that the sequence of events by doing a wrongful act.The challenge is to re-examine the intuitions that lead judges and others to their conclusions (the wrongful act theory, the approach to medical mistakes etc. ) with a view to constructing a law that ensures that the courts respect the various principles . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. P. S. A. Pillai – Criminal law 2. Glanville Williams book on criminal law 3. www. lawteacher. com ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Page 427, principles of criminal law, Glanville will iams [ 2 ]. Duff, criminal attempts, 317-20 Glanville Williams [ 3 ]. 65 CR App R 161. [ 4 ]. (1983) 2 AC 161 [ 5 ]. Criticisms by jc smith (1982) Crim LR 527 and 724, and D.Husak, philosophy of criminal law(1987), 176-8 [ 6 ]. See I. M Kennedy, Treat me right (1988) 169-74 [ 7 ]. (1993) AC 789 [ 8 ]. 4 ALL ER 961 [ 9 ]. Emery (1993) 14 Cr App R (s) 394, aand the new duty by the domestic violence, crime and victims act 2004. [ 10 ]. Glanville Williams, ‘criminal law- causation’) [ 11 ]. Rustom sherior Irani v state of Maharashtra(1969) ACC Cj 79 (SC) [ 12 ]. Md rangawalla v state of mahaarashtra AIR 1965 [ 13 ]. However a driver is expected to anticipate reasonably foreseeable negligent act to road users as contributory negligence has no application in criminal law. [ 14 ]. Re san pai (1936) 14 rang 643